Second, the term “philosophy” was applied to many very diverse subjects—from astronomy to theology (it was sometimes used simply to mean “wisdom” or “knowledge”). The term “philosophy” is therefore being used here in its modern sense—to refer to the rigorous investigation of any subject at the most abstract and general level rather than to systems of thought, no matter how complex and sophisticated, that consist solely of opinions about the nature of things or of instructions as to how people should live. That in turn rules out almost everything of this period from outside Europe and the Islamic world.

The four main sources of medieval philosophy were Classical philosophy and the three major religions of the time: Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. Although Neoplatonism was influential, especially on certain early Muslim philosophers, Plato was a much less important figure than Aristotle. Although by the beginning of this period most of Aristotle’s works had been lost to Europe, many were regained during the 12th century thanks to the Arabs, who had come into contact with Greek philosophy in the course of their conquests.

The Medieval Philosophers

 

The philosophical work of Jewish writers (living in Muslim countries, and writing mainly in Arabic)—including Maimonides (also called Moses ben Maimon or Rambam), Moses Nahmanides, Yehuda Hallevi, and Solomon ben Yehuda ibn Gabirol—and that of Muslim writers—such as Averroës, Avicenna, al-Farabi (also known as Alfarabius), and al-Kindi—suffered a theological backlash because of conflicts between religious beliefs and, especially, new metaphysical speculations; thus, only the Christian tradition survived to the end of the medieval period (partly because Christian philosophers were less bold than their Jewish and Muslim counterparts in bringing out the conflicts between reason and religion). Some of the most important Christian philosophers, apart from those mentioned elsewhere in the article, were Peter Abelard, St Anselm, John Scotus Erigena, and John Duns Scotus (the “Subtle Doctor”).

The Main Themes

 

 

The point of medieval philosophy was not to build up grand systems, nor to develop world views (in this respect, at least, it resembled 20th-century philosophy). The medieval philosopher had a world view already in place: the religious one. Indeed, the dominant theme of the period can be viewed as the attempt by thinkers from the three religions to come to terms with Classical philosophical ideals. In the process, a clear and separate philosophical tradition emerged, helped by the creation and growth of universities such as Bologna, Paris, and Oxford. Especially in the Christian context, this philosophical tradition became known as scholasticism, the philosophy of the schools and schoolmen.

Much of the work of the period consisted in, or arose out of, the study of Aristotle, and various attempts to apply his thinking to theology (the most prominent example of the former being St Bonaventure, and of the latter, St Thomas Aquinas, nicknamed the Angelic Doctor). Little emphasis was placed upon originality of thought, but there was a gradual move towards more speculative thinking. Issues that had importance, not only at the time, but for later philosophy, included the debate between realism and nominalism, the relationship between faith and reason, and the development of a philosophical technical vocabulary that could deal with metaphysical and logical speculation.

The slow development of medieval philosophy was finally overtaken in the 14th century by much quicker developments in the fields of politics and the physical sciences. Commonly called the Renaissance, this period was typified in philosophy by the work of Francis Bacon, Nicholas of Cusa, and Niccolò Machiavelli, and by a move away from Aristotelianism and towards Platonism. In general, though, philosophy made scant progress in the Renaissance, which can be seen as little more than an interregnum between medieval philosophy and modern philosophy, a period ushered in by the work of René Descartes, whose inspiration was in part a rejection of much of the scholastic framework.

 

Contributed By:

Peter J. King[1]

Quelle: Microsoft Encarta